Consonants

Consonant: A sound in which the air is partly blocked by the lips, tongue, teeth, etc. Any letter of the English alphabet which represents these sounds, e.g. d /d/, c /k/

Definition taken from the Cambridge TKT Glossary

“All consonants (with the exceptions of /w/ and /j/) involve a restriction to the

outflow of air, and it is the precise place and manner of this restriction that gives

each consonant its unique sound. We can describe the uniqueness of each

consonant quite well using these three variables:

1 voiced or unvoiced;

2 place of articulation (where the sound is produced in the vocal tract);

3 manner of articulation (how the sound is produced in the vocal tract).”

 "Sound Foundations, Learning and teaching pronunciation", Adrian Underhill, Macmillan, 2005.

Voiced or Unvoiced

Voiced: The vocal cords vibrate

Unvoiced: There is no vibration

Manner of Articulation

Plosives: There is a build-up of air just before the sound starts, and

there is a sort of pop as the air is released and the consonant sound too is

released.

“The air stream is completely blocked by the tongue or lips, held momentarily, then the pressure is released explosively”

 /p/b/t/d/k/g/

Affricates: Just like plosive sounds, they begin with a build up of pressure, but the air is released more slowly, creating a more fricative sound

/ʧ/ /ʤ/

Fricatives: There is a restriction to the air flow (there is no complete block)

“At the beginning of the sound you’ll notice an increase in the pressure of air

behind the restriction, producing an audible friction which provides the

characteristic sound of that consonant”

“fricatives can be sustained and given longer or shorter duration.”

/f,v,θ,ð,s,z,ʃ,ʒ/

Nasal: “the air stream carries the sound through your nose”

/m, n, ŋ/

Fortis Fricative: When the sound /h/ is produced before a vowel,

There is a stronger expellation of air from the lungs (fortis) than is

 required for the vowel alone, causing friction in the vocal tract (fricative), which is already shaped in readiness for the following vowel.

Lateral: The air stream escapes over the sides of the tongue /l/

/r, w, j/ Sounds

In order to create these sounds, the vocal tract is narrowed, however there is no friction noise

Frictionless continuant: While the tongue is being curled upwards, the air stream escapes freely, without friction, over the central part of the tongue. It is continuant because it can be sustained like a vowel /r/

The /w, j/sounds are called semi-vowels because even though the vocal tract is narrowed when they are produced, there is no friction noise and they can be sustained

Place of Articulation

Bilabial: the two lips come together to block the air stream /p, b, m/

Alveolar: the front part of your tongue (the ‘blade’) makes contact with the bony ridge immediately behind your upper front teeth.

At this point the block to the air stream is both made and released. /t, d, n, l/

The friction is produced by pressing the blade of your tongue lightly against

the alveolar ridge /s, z/

Palato-Alveolar: the blade of your tongue makes contact with the junction between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate, and the body of the tongue is slightly raised towards the hard palate. /ʧ, ʤ, r/

The friction here is produced with the tongue at a point slightly further back

from /s/ and /z/, so that the blade of the tongue is roughly opposite the join

between the alveolar ridge and the palate. /ʃ, ʒ/

Velar: The air stream is blocked when the back of your tongue is in contact with the soft palate. /k, g, ŋ/

Labio-dental: the friction for this consonant is produced by pressing your bottom lip lightly against the edge of your top front teeth.  /fv/

Dental: The friction here is produced by pressing the tip of your tongue lightly against the inside edge of your top front teeth, so that the air stream is just able to flow in between tongue and teeth, producing friction /θ, ð/

The sound /h/ : can be articulated in any of the twelve different mouth/tongue postures corresponding to the twelve English monophthongs.

The sound /w/: The exact starting position depends on the nature of the following vowel, but it is usually characterized by rounded lips, hence the full description of /w/ as a voiced bilabial semi-vowel. /w/ occurs initially but not finally.

The sound /j/: The exact starting position of /j/ depends on the nature of the following vowel, but it is usually characterized by the tongue being close to the palate, hence the full description of /j/ as a voiced palatal semi-vowel, /j/ occurs initially but never finally.

 "Sound Foundations, Learning and teaching pronunciation", Adrian Underhill, Macmillan, 2005.